Compositions and methods for transplantation of colon microbiota

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides compositions that include an extract of human feces, and methods for using such compositions, including methods for replacing or supplementing or modifying a subject&#39;s colon microbiota, and methods for treating a disease, pathological condition, and/or iatrogenic condition of the colon.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/261,319 filed Sep. 9, 2016, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/003,411 filed Jan. 17, 2014, which is a 371 of International Application No. PCT/US2012/028484 filed Mar. 9, 2012, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/450,838 filed Mar. 9, 2011, the entireties of each of which are herein incorporated by reference. This application is also a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/173,134 filed Jun. 3, 2016, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/003,411 filed Jan. 17, 2014, which is a 371 of International Application No. PCT/US2012/028484 filed Mar. 9, 2012, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/450,838, filed Mar. 9, 2011, the entireties of each of which are herein incorporated by reference.

GOVERNMENT FUNDING

This invention was made with government support under R21A1091907, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND

In 1978, Clostridium difficile was first recognized as a major cause of diarrhea and pseudomembranous colitis associated with the use of antimicrobial agents. Since this time, infection by C. difficile has been steadily growing in incidence, morbidity, and mortality across North America and Europe (Freeman et al. Clin Microbiol Rev 2010; 23:529-49; Kelly and LaMont, N Engl J Med 2008; 359:1932-40). Analysis of the U.S. National Hospital Discharge Survey statistics between 1996 and 2003 reveals a doubling in the prevalence of diagnosis of C. difficile infection (CDI), to 0.61/1,000, among inpatients (McDonald et al. Emerg Infect Dis 2006; 12:409-15). A 2008 survey of 12.5% of all U.S. acute care facilities indicated a CDI prevalence rate of 13.1/1,000, which is at least an order of magnitude higher than that found previously (Jarvis et al. Am J Infect Control 2009; 37:263-70). While older patients have disproportionately greater rates of CDI than younger individuals, no age group is spared, and the incidence of CDI-related hospitalizations has been rising even in the pediatric population (Zilberberg et al. Emerg Infect Dis 2010; 16:604-9). The increase in incidence has been further compounded by an elevated frequency of the most severe forms of this disease, as evidenced by rising CDI-associated morbidity and case fatality (Ricciardi et al. Arch Surg 2007; 142:624-31; discussion 631, Zilberberg et al. Emerg Infect Dis 2008; 14:929-31). This is, in part, related to the emergence of more virulent C. difficile strains, such as PCR ribotype 027/North American Pulsed Field type 1 (NAP1), which is characterized by a greater potential for toxin production and antibiotic resistance than other clinically-relevant strains (Rupnik et al. Nat Rev Microbiol 2009; 7:526-36, Kuijper et al. Euro Surveill 2008; 13).

Recurrent CDI is one of the most difficult and increasingly common challenges associated with CDI (Surawicz, Gastroenterology 2009; 136:1152-4). An initial incidence of CDI can be followed by a relapse within 30 days in about 20-30% of cases (Kelly and LaMont, N Engl J Med 2008; 359:1932-40 (2008); Louie et al. N Engl J Med 2011; 364:422-31; Pepin et al. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 42:758-64), and the risk of recurrence doubles after two or more occurrences (McDonald et al. Emerg Infect Dis 2006; 12:409-15). Older age, intercurrent antibiotic use for non-C. difficile indications, renal insufficiency, immune deficiency, and antacid medications, are some of the known risk factors for recurrent CDI (Surawicz, Gastroenterology 2009; 136:1152-4, Garey et al. J Hosp Infect 2008; 70:298-304). The presence of just three clinical criteria: age >65 years, severe disease, and continued use of antibiotics after treating the initial CDI episode, are predictive of an almost 90% relapse rate (Hu et al. Gastroenterology 2009; 136:1206-14). CDI also commonly complicates management of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), which has recently been recognized as an additional independent risk factor for CDI infection (Issa et al. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2007; 5:345-51, Rodemann et al. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2007; 5:339-4415). CDI in patients with underlying IBD is associated with increased severity of colitis and higher rates of recurrence and colectomy (Issa et al. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2008; 14:1432-42).

It is now recognized that the presence of normal, healthy, intestinal microbiota (normal gut microorganisms) offers protection against CDI. Conversely, severe disruption of normal intestinal microbiota by use of antibiotics, including metronidazole and vancomycin that are used to treat CDI, is likely one of the major reason for its recurrence. Chang and colleagues used 16S rDNA sequencing to analyze the fecal microbiota of seven patients with initial and recurrent CDI (Chang et al. J Infect Dis 2008; 197:435-8). They reported that bacterial species diversity was reduced in all patients compared to normal control subjects. The greatest reduction in species diversity, however, was found in the three patients with recurrent CDI and disruption of their gut microbiota was evident at the phylum level—with marked reduction in Bacteroidetes, normally one of the two dominant phyla in the colon. Instead, the gut microbiota in these patients were dominated by members of the proteobacteria and verrucomicrobia phyla, which normally are only minor constituents of the colon microbiota.

The general aim of antibiotic treatment for recurrent CDI is not mere suppression of C. difficile, but also preservation of the residual colon microbiota and optimization of their restoration. Various antibiotic regimens, including long tapered or pulsed dosing with vancomycin (McFarland et al., Am J Gastroenterol 2002; 97:1769-75) and rifaximin “chaser” protocols (Johnson et al. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 44:846-8, Johnson et al. Anaerobe 2009; 15:290-1) have been used to achieve this objective with partial success. Recently, fidaxomicin, a new macrocyclic antibiotic which is narrow in spectrum and spares Bacteroides species, was shown to reduce the initial relapse rate of CDI by 50% compared to vancomycin treatment (Louie et al. N Engl J Med 2011; 364:422-31). However, treatment with fidaxomicin did not alter the recurrence rate of CDI caused by the more virulent PCR 027/NAP1 strain. Therefore, despite these advances it seems likely that the challenges in treatment of recurrent CDI will remain for the foreseeable future.

Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT), also commonly known as ‘fecal bacteriotherapy’ represents the one therapeutic protocol that allows the fastest reconstitution of a normal composition of colon microbial communities. For many decades, FMT has been offered by select centers across the world, typically as an option of last resort for patients with recurrent CDI. The mostly commonly earliest cited report for FMT was by Eiseman and colleagues who in 1958 described the use of fecal enemas for patients who likely had severe or fulminant form of pseudomembranous colitis (Eiseman et al. Surgery 1958; 44:854-9). Since this time, well over 200 cases have been reported as individual case reports, or small case series, with a ˜90% cumulative success rate in clearing recurrent CDI, without any noted adverse events. The history and general methodology used for FMT have been described in several recent reviews (Bakken. Anaerobe 2009; 15:285-9, van Nood et al. Euro Surveill 2009; 14, Khoruts and Sadowsky. Mucosal Immunol 2011; 4:4-7). However, despite the long and successful track record, as well as great clinical need, the availability of the procedure for many patients remains very limited.

The lack of wider practice of FMT is due in large part to multiple non-trivial practical barriers and not due to lack of efficacy. These include lack of reimbursement for donor screening, lack of adequate donors at the correct time, difficulty in material preparation and administration, as well as aesthetic concerns about doing the procedure in endoscopy or medical office. These also include patient perception of the procedure, willingness of staff to perform the procedure, sanitation issues related to manipulation of fecal matter. Together these factors make it a distasteful option that is often considered a treatment of last resort, and that is largely unavailable to the vast majority of patients who could benefit from it. Moreover, the pharmaceutical industry has shown little interest in technological development of FMT-based therapeutics, in large part due to the wide availability of donor material and its complex composition. Instead, development has been driven mostly by individual clinicians faced with desperate need in their patients.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides compositions that include an extract or a preparation of human feces. In one embodiment, a composition includes no greater than 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, or 10% weight non-living material/weight biological material. Optionally the biological material includes human gut, colon or intestinal fecal microbes, and optionally the biological material includes human gut, colon or intestinal bacteria. Optionally the composition includes a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. Optionally the composition is a formulation for oral administration.

In one embodiment, a composition consists of, or consists essentially of, particles of non-living material and/or particles of biological material that will pass through a sieve having a sieve size of 2.0 mm, 1.0 mm, 0.5 mm, 0.25 mm, 0.212 mm, 0.180 mm, 0.150 mm, 0.125 mm, 0.106 mm, 0.090 mm, 0.075 mm, 0.063 mm, 0.053 mm, 0.045 mm, 0.038 mm, 0.032 mm, 0.025 mm, 0.020 mm, 0.01 mm, or 0.2 mm. Optionally the composition includes a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, and optionally the composition is a formulation for oral administration.

In one embodiment, a composition includes at least 4 different phyla of gut, colon or intestinal bacteria extracted or prepared from the gut, colon or intestine, wherein the phyla include a member of Bacteroidetes phylum, member of Firmicutes phylum, member of Proteobacteria phylum, member of Tenericutes phylum, or a combination thereof. Optionally the phyla are chosen from Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, and Tenericutes. The composition includes no greater than 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9% 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, or 10% weight non-living material/weight biological material. Optionally the biological material includes human gut, colon or intestinal flora. Optionally the biological material includes human gut, colon or intestinal bacteria. Optionally the composition includes a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, and optionally the composition is a formulation for oral administration.

In one embodiment, a composition includes an extract of human feces wherein the composition is substantially odorless, optionally includes biological material, and optionally wherein the biological material includes bacteria. Optionally the composition includes a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, and optionally the composition is a formulation for oral administration.

A composition of the present invention may include no greater than 0.1% weight non-living material/weight biological material. In one embodiment, a composition may consist of, or consist essentially of, particles that will pass through a 0.25 mm sieve, or equivalent. In one embodiment, a composition may include no greater than 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9% or 10% weight non-living material/weight biological material. A composition of the present invention may further include a cryoprotectant, such as glycerol. In one embodiment, a composition may be at a temperature of less than 0° C. In one embodiment, a composition is a solid, such as a powder. A composition of the present invention may include at least 1×10¹⁰, 2×10¹⁰, 3×10¹⁰, 4×10¹⁰, or 5×10¹⁰ bacteria. In one embodiment, the biological material of a composition may include a plurality of prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells, or viruses; or a population of prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells, and viruses, that is substantially identical to or representative of or equivalent to a population of prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells, and viruses present in a feces of a normal healthy human. In one embodiment, the biological material of a composition may include a population of prokaryotic cells and viruses that is substantially identical to or representative of or equivalent to a population of prokaryotic cells and viruses present in the feces of a normal healthy human. In one embodiment, the biological material of a composition includes a population of prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells, or viruses that is substantially identical to or representative of or equivalent to a population of prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells, and viruses present in the feces of a normal healthy human.

The present invention also provides composition prepared by a process. In one embodiment, a process includes subjecting a fecal sample to a condition or conditions that remove at least 91%, 92%, 93%, 94% 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or more of the non-living material present in the fecal sample. In one embodiment, a process includes filtering a fecal sample with a filter medium, wherein the filter medium includes a sieve size of no greater than 2.0 nun, 1.0 mm, 0.5 mm, 0.25 mm, 0.212 mm, 0.180 mm, 0.150 mm, 0.125 mm, 0.106 mm, 0.090 mm, 0.075 mm, 0.063 mm, 0.053 mm, 0.045 mm, 0.038 mm, 0.032 mm, 0.025 mm, 0.020 mm, 0.01 mm, or 0.2 mm to result in or to generate a filtrate. Optionally a composition includes a biological material, and optionally the biological material includes bacteria. Optionally a composition includes a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. Optionally a composition is a formulation for oral administration. Optionally the process may occur at a temperature of no greater than 26° C., 27° C., 28° C., 29° C., 30° C., 31° C., 32° C., 33° C., or 34° C.

The composition may include at least 4 different phyla of bacteria, wherein the include a member of Bacteroidetes phylum, member of Firmicutes phylum, member of Proteobacteria phylum, member of Tenericutes phylum, or a combination thereof. Optionally the phyla are chosen from Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, and Tenericutes. In one embodiment, the composition further includes at least 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 different classes of bacteria chosen from Actinobacteria, Bacteroidia, Bacilli, Clostridia, Erysipelotrichi, Alphaproteobacteria, Betaproteobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria, Mollicutes, and Verrucomicrobiae.

The process may further include adding a cryoprotectant, for instance, glycerol, to the composition. The process may further include freezing the composition. The composition may be for use as a therapeutic agent, and it may be for use in the treatment of a disease or a pathological or iatrogenic condition of the colon. The disease may be a disease or condition characterized by a dysfunctional or pathological composition of colon microbiota, for instance, a Clostridium difficile colitis.

The present invention also provides a method for replacing or supplementing or modifying a subject's colon microbiota. The method may include administering to the subject a composition described herein. The present invention also provides a method for treating a subject. The method may include administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of a composition described herein. The methods may further include removal of some, most, or substantially all of the subject's colon, gut or intestinal microbiota prior to the administering. The subject may have or be at risk for having a colitis. In one embodiment, the colitis is an autoimmune colitis, such as an inflammatory bowel disease, an ulcerative colitis, a Crohn's disease, or an irritable bowel syndrome. In one embodiment, the colitis is an infectious colitis, such as a Clostridium difficile colitis or an enterohemorrhagic colitis. The Clostridium difficile colitis may be an acute Clostridium difficile colitis, a relapsing Clostridium difficile colitis, and a severe Clostridium difficile colitis. The enterohemorrhagic colitis may be caused by a Shigella spp. or an E. coli. The subject may have or be at risk for chronic diarrhea or chronic constipation.

The present invention also provides the use of a composition described herein for the manufacture of a medicament, or for the manufacture of a medicament for treating or ameliorating or preventing a disease or a pathological or iatrogenic condition of the colon. Optionally the disease is a disease or condition characterized by a dysfunctional or pathological composition of colon microbiota, or the disease is a Clostridium difficile colitis, or the disease or condition is a colitis, an autoimmune colitis, an infectious colitis or an enterohemorrhagic colitis.

The term “and/or” means one or all of the listed elements or a combination of any two or more of the listed elements.

The words “preferred” and “preferably” refer to embodiments of the invention that may afford certain benefits, under certain circumstances. However, other embodiments may also be preferred, under the same or other circumstances. Furthermore, the recitation of one or more preferred embodiments does not imply that other embodiments are not useful, and is not intended to exclude other embodiments from the scope of the invention.

The terms “comprises” and variations thereof do not have a limiting meaning where these terms appear in the description and claims.

Unless otherwise specified, “a,” “an,” “the,” and “at least one” are used interchangeably and mean one or more than one.

Also herein, the recitations of numerical ranges by endpoints include all numbers subsumed within that range (e.g., 1 to 5 includes 1, 1.5, 2, 2.75, 3, 3.80, 4, 5, etc.).

For any method disclosed herein that includes discrete steps, the steps may be conducted in any feasible order. And, as appropriate, any combination of two or more steps may be conducted simultaneously.

The above summary of the present invention is not intended to describe each disclosed embodiment or every implementation of the present invention. The description that follows more particularly exemplifies illustrative embodiments. In several places throughout the application, guidance is provided through lists of examples, which examples can be used in various combinations. In each instance, the recited list serves only as a representative group and should not be interpreted as an exclusive list.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a plot of microbial community taxonomic distribution at the order level in a fecal transplant bacteriotherapy recipient before and after receiving the transplant in accordance with Example 1.

FIG. 2 is a plot of microbial community taxonomic distribution at the family level in a fecal transplant bacteriotherapy recipient before and after receiving the transplant in accordance with Example 1.

FIG. 3 is a plot of community analysis done using the Yue and Clayton's theta index showing that the post-transplantation samples from a recipient clustering closely with each other and with the donor's sample, compared to that of the recipient's pre-transplantation sample.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIVE EMBODIMENTS

Before the present invention standard practices suggested matching each recipient of fecal bacteriotherapy with a separate donor, usually a close family member, or using the recipient's own banked feces for later use. The rationale for these practices was the idea that close family members have already shared their pathogens, and that these kinds of gut microbiota would be somehow better tolerated by the recipient's immune system because of previous exposure. However, this resulted in duplicative screening, burdening already debilitated patients with the task of finding a suitable donor, pressure on the donor to provide the material and potentially withholding important medical information, pressure to decrease costs since costs were usually borne by the patient, time delays associated with the screening, and pressure to accept donors of suboptimal health status during donor selection. The compositions presented herein result from a more standardized manufacturing process with rigorous donor screening, multiple steps of filtration that concentrate the microbiota and remove the bulk of nonliving material, and optionally freeze/thaw it in a way that preserves its viability. The compositions presented herein provide a significant advantage by making useful compositions of colon microflora readily available for use by a physician to treat a patient. Moreover, it is much more aesthetically acceptable, as the compositions are nearly odorless, are in concentrated form, and are easily manipulated using standard laboratory practice.

The present invention provides compositions that include fecal microbes. As used herein, the term “fecal microbes” refers to microorganisms that are present in the gut, intestine, or colon, preferably colon, of a normal healthy adult human. Such a composition may be prepared by processing fecal material. As used herein, the term “fecal material” refers to human stool. Unprocessed fecal material contains non-living material and biological material. The “non-living material” may include, but is not limited to, dead bacteria, shed host cells, proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals, mucus, bile, undigested fiber and other foods, and other compounds resulting from food and metabolic waste products and partial or complete digestion of food materials. “Biological material” refers to the living material in fecal material, and includes microbes including prokaryotic cells such as bacteria and archea (e.g., living prokaryotic cells and spores that can sporulate to become living prokaryotic cells), eukaryotic cells such as protozoa and fungi, and viruses. In one embodiment, “biological material” refers to the living material, e.g., the microbes, eukaryotic cells, and viruses, that are present in the colon of a normal healthy human.

Examples of prokaryotic cells that may be present in a composition of the present invention include cells that are members of the class Actinobacteria, such as the subclass Actinobacteridae or Coriobacteridae, such as the order Bifidobacteriales or Coriobacteriales, and/or such as the family Bifidobacteriaceae or Coriobacteriaceae; members of the phylum Bacteroidetes, such as class Bacteroidia, such as class Bacteroidales, and/or such as family Bacteroidaceae or Rikenellaceae; members of the phylum Firmicutes, such as class Bacilli, Clostridia, or Erysipelotrichi, such as order Bacillales or Lactobacillales or Clostridales or Erysipelotrichales, and/or such as family Paenibacillaceae or Aeroccaceae or Lactobacillaceae or Streptococcaceae or Catabacteriaceae or Peptococcaceae or Peptostreptococcaceae or Ruminococcaceae or Clostridiaceae or Eubacteriaceae or Lachnospiraceae or Erysipelotrichaceae; members of the phylum Proteobacteria, such as class Alphaproteobacteria or Betaproteobacteria or Gammaproteobacteria, such as order Rhizobiales or Burkholderiales or Alteromonadales or Enterobacteriales, and/or such as family Rhodobiaceae or Burkholderiaceae or Shewanellaceae or Enterobacteriaceae; members of the phylum Tenericutes, such as the class Mollicutes, such as the order Entomoplasmatales, and/or such as the family Spiroplasmataceae; and/or members of the class Verrucomicrobiae, such as the order Verrucomicrobiales, and/or such as the family Verrucomicrobiaceae.

In one embodiment a composition of the present invention may include prokaryotic bacteria that are members of at least 1 phylum, at least 2 phyla, at least 3 phyla, at least 4 phyla, at least 5 phyla, at least 6 phyla, at least 7 phyla, at least 8 phyla, at least 9 phyla, or at least 10 phyla. In one embodiment a composition of the present invention may include prokaryotic bacteria that are members of at least 1 class, at least 2 classes, at least 3 classes, at least 4 classes, at least 5 classes, at least 6 classes, or at least 7 classes. In one embodiment a composition of the present invention may include prokaryotic bacteria that are members of at least 1 order, at least 2 orders, at least 3 orders, at least 4 orders, at least 5 orders, at least 6 orders, or at least 7 orders. In one embodiment a composition of the present invention may include prokaryotic bacteria that are members of at least 1 family, at least 2 families, at least 3 families, at least 4 families, at least 5 families, at least 6 families, at least 7 families. In one embodiment a composition of the present invention may include at least 5, at least 10, at least 20, or at least 30 different genera of prokaryotic bacteria. In one embodiment a composition of the present invention may include at least 10, at least 50, at least 100, at least 200, at least 300, or at least 400 different species of prokaryotic bacteria.

In one embodiment a composition of the present invention includes no greater than 5% weight of non-living material/weight biological material (wt/wt), no greater than 2.5% (wt/wt), no greater than 1% (wt/wt), no greater than 0.1% (wt/wt), no greater than 0.01% (wt/wt), or no greater than 0.001% (wt/wt) nonliving material. In one embodiment, the amount of non-living material in a composition of the present invention is undetectable using currently available techniques. For instance, living material can be stained for biological activity, electron transport, DNA and RNA for specific genes.

In one embodiment, the fecal material present in a composition of the present invention does not include particles (e.g., particles of non-living material and/or particles of biological material) having a size of greater than 2.0 millimeters (mm), greater than 1.0 rnm, greater than 0.5 mm, greater than 0.25 mm, greater than 0 212 mm, greater than 0.180 mm, greater than 0.150 mm, greater than 0.125 mm, greater than 0.106 rnm, greater than 0.090 mm, greater than 0.075 mm, greater than 0.063 mm, greater than 0.053 mm, greater than 0.045 mm, greater than 0.038 mm, greater than 0.032 mm, greater than 0.025 mm, greater than 0.020 mm, greater than 0.01 mm, or greater than 0.2 mm. Non-fecal material present in a composition may include particles having a size of greater than 2.0 mm, greater than 1.0 nun, greater than 0.5 mm, greater than 0.25 mm, greater than 0.212 mm, greater than 0.180 mm, greater than 0.150 mm, greater than 0.125 mm, greater than 0.106 mm, greater than 0.090 mm, greater than 0.075 mm, greater than 0.063 mm, greater than 0.053 mm, greater than 0.045 mm, greater than 0.038 mm, greater than 0.032 mm, greater than 0.025 mm, greater than 0.020 mm, greater than 0.01 mm, or greater than 0.2 mm. In one embodiment, the fecal material present in a composition of the present invention consists of, or consists essentially of, particles of non-living material and/or biological material having a size that will pass through a sieve having a sieve size of 2.0 nun, 1.0 mm, 0.5 mm, 0.25 mm, 0.212 mm, 0.180 mm, 0.150 mm, 0.125 mm, 0.106 mm, 0.090 mm, 0.075 mm, 0.063 mm, 0.053 mm, 0.045 mm, 0.038 mm, 0.032 mm, 0.025 mm, 0.020 mm, 0.01 mm, or 0.2 mm. Thus, in such an embodiment, the fecal material present in a composition has a size that is less than or equal to 2.0 mm, less than or equal to 1.0 mm, less than or equal to 0.5 mm, less than or equal to 0.25 mm, less than or equal to 0.212 mm, less than or equal to 0.180 mm, less than or equal to 0.150 mm, less than or equal to 0.125 mm, less than or equal to 0.106 mm, less than or equal to 0.090 mm, less than or equal to 0.075 mm, less than or equal to 0.063 mm, less than or equal to 0.053 mm, less than or equal to 0.045 mm, less than or equal to 0.038 mm, less than or equal to 0.032 mm, less than or equal to 0.025 mm, less than or equal to 0.020 mm, less than or equal to 0.01 mm, or less than or equal to 0.2 mm. The sieve size may be based on the US Standard sieve sizes of, for instance, 10, 18, 35, 60, 70, 80, 100, 120, 140, 170, 200, 230, 270, 325, or 400.

A composition of the present invention may optionally include a cryoprotectant. A cryoprotectant is a compound that maintains the viability of fecal microbes when frozen. Cryoprotectants are known in the art and used routinely to protect microbes when exposed to freezing conditions. Examples include, but are not limited to, amino acids such as alanine, glycine, proline; simple sugars such as sucrose, glucose, lactose, ribose, and trehalose; and other compounds such as dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), and glycerol. The amount of cryoprotectant present in a composition described herein may vary depending on the cryoprotectant used and the temperature to be used for freezing (e.g., −20° C., −80° C., or a different temperature). The amount of cryoprotectant that can be used is known to the skilled person or may be easily determined using routine experimentation. In one embodiment, a composition of the present invention may include glycerol at a concentration of 10%.

In one embodiment a composition of the present invention does not include pathogenic biological material. In one embodiment, fecal material is from a person that has undergone a medical history, a physical examination, and laboratory testing. The evaluation of medical history may include, but is not limited to, risk of infectious agents, presence of gastrointestinal co-morbidities, factors that can or do affect the composition of the intestinal microbiota, and systemic medical conditions. Exclusion criteria regarding risk of infectious agents may include, but are not limited to, known viral infection with Hepatitis B, C or HIV; known exposure to HIV or viral hepatitis at any time; high risk behaviors including sex for drugs or money, men who have sex with men, more than one sexual partner in the preceding 12 months, any past use of intravenous drugs or intranasal cocaine, history of incarceration; tattoo or body piercing within 12 months; travel to areas of the world where risk of traveler's diarrhea is higher than the US; and current communicable disease, e.g., upper respiratory viral infection.

Exclusion criteria regarding gastrointestinal co-morbidities include, but are not limited to, history of irritable bowel syndrome, wherein specific symptoms may include frequent abdominal cramps, excessive gas, bloating, abdominal distension, fecal urgency, diarrhea, constipation; history of inflammatory bowel disease such as Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, microscopic colitis; chronic diarrhea; chronic constipation or use of laxatives; history of gastrointestinal malignancy or known colon polyposis; history of any abdominal surgery, e.g., gastric bypass, intestinal resection, appendectomy, cholecystectomy, and the like; use of probiotics or any other over the counter aids used by the potential donor for purpose of regulating digestion, but yogurt and kefir products may be allowed if taken merely as food rather than nutritional supplements.

Exclusion criteria regarding factors that can or do affect the composition of the intestinal microbiota include, but are not limited to, antibiotics for any indication within the preceding 6 months; any prescribed immunosuppressive or anti-neoplastic medications.

Exclusion criteria regarding systemic medical conditions include, but are not limited to, established or emerging metabolic syndrome, where criteria used for definition here are stricter than established criteria, including history of increased blood pressure, history of diabetes or glucose intolerance; known systemic autoimmunity, e.g., connective tissue disease, multiple sclerosis; known atopic diseases including asthma or eczema; chronic pain syndromes including fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome; ongoing (even if intermittent) use of any prescribed medications, including inhalers or topical creams and ointments; neurologic, neurodevelopmental, and neurodegenerative disorders including autism, Parkinson's disease.

Exclusion criteria on physical examination may include, but are not limited to, general, such as body mass index >26 kg/m², central obesity defined by waste:hip ratio >0.85 (male) and >0.80 (female); blood pressure >135 mmHg systolic and >85 mmHg diastolic; skin—presence of a rash, tattoos or body piercing placed within a year, jaundice; enlarged lymph nodes; wheezing on auscultation; hepatomegaly or stigmata of liver disease; swollen or tender joints; muscle weakness; abnormal neurologic examination.

Exclusion criteria on laboratory testing may include, but is not limited to, positive stool Clostridium difficile toxin B tested by PCR; positive stool cultures for any of the routine pathogens including Salmonella, Shigella, Yersinia, Campylobacter, E. coli 0157:H7; abnormal ova and parasites examination; positive Giardia, Cryptosporidium, or Helicobacter pylori antigens; positive screening for any viral illnesses, including HIV 1 and 2, Viral Hepatitis A IgM, Hepatitis surface antigen and core Ab; abnormal RPR (screen for syphilis); any abnormal liver function tests including alkaline phosphatase, aspartate aminotransaminase, alanine aminotransferase; raised serum triglycerides >150 mg/dL; HDL cholesterol <40 mg/dL (males) and <50 mg/dL (females); high sensitivity CRP >2.4 mg/L; raised fasting plasma glucose (>100 mg/dL).

The compositions of the present invention may be included in a diversity of pharmaceutically acceptable formulations. In one embodiment, a formulation may be a fluid composition. Fluid compositions include, but are not limited to, solutions, suspensions, dispersions, and the like. In one embodiment, a formulation may be a solid composition. Solid compositions include, but are not limited to, powder, granule, compressed tablet, pill, capsule, chewing gum, wafer, and the like. Those formulations may include a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier to render the composition appropriate for administration to a subject. As used herein “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” includes pharmacologically inactive compounds compatible with pharmaceutical administration. The compositions of the present invention may be formulated to be compatible with its intended route of administration. A composition of the present invention may be administered by any method suitable for depositing in the gastrointestinal tract, preferably the colon, of a subject. Examples of routes of administration include rectal administration (e.g., by suppository, enema, upper endoscopy, upper push enteroscopy, or colonoscopy), intubation through the nose or the mouth (e.g., by nasogastric tube, nasoenteric tube, or nasal jejunal tube), or oral administration (e.g., by a solid such as a pill, tablet, or capsule, or by liquid).

For therapeutic use in the method of the present invention, a composition may be conveniently administered in a form containing one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers. Suitable carriers are well known in the art and vary with the desired form and mode of administration of the composition. For example, they may include diluents or excipients such as fillers, binders, wetting agents, disintegrators, surface-active agents, glidants, lubricants, and the like. Typically, the carrier may be a solid (including powder), liquid, or combinations thereof. Each carrier is preferably “acceptable” in the sense of being compatible with the other ingredients in the composition and not injurious to the subject. The carrier is preferably biologically acceptable and inert, i.e., it permits the composition to maintain viability of the biological material until delivered to the appropriate site.

Oral compositions may include an inert diluent or an edible carrier. For the purpose of oral therapeutic administration, the active compound can be incorporated with excipients and used in the form of tablets, troches, or capsules, e.g., gelatin capsules. Oral compositions can also be prepared by combining a composition of the present invention with a food. In one embodiment a food used for administration is chilled, for instance, ice cream. Pharmaceutically compatible binding agents, and/or adjuvant materials can be included as part of the composition. The tablets, pills, capsules, troches and the like can contain any of the following ingredients, or compounds of a similar nature: a binder such as microcrystalline cellulose, gum tragacanth or gelatin; an excipient such as starch or lactose, a disintegrating agent such as alginic acid, Primogel, or corn starch; a lubricant such as magnesium stearate or Sterotes; a glidant such as colloidal silicon dioxide; a sweetening agent such as sucrose or saccharin; or a flavoring agent such as peppermint, methyl salicylate, or orange flavoring.

The active compounds can also be prepared in the form of suppositories (e.g., with conventional suppository bases such as cocoa butter and other glycerides) or retention enemas for rectal delivery.

The active compounds may be prepared with carriers that will protect the compound against rapid elimination from the body, such as a controlled release formulation, including implants. Biodegradable, biocompatible polymers can be used, such as ethylene vinyl acetate, polyanhydrides, polyglycolic acid, collagen, polyorthoesters, and polylactic acid. Such formulations can be prepared using standard techniques. The materials can also be obtained commercially from, for instance, Alza Corporation and Nova Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Liposomal suspensions can also be used as pharmaceutically acceptable carriers. These can be prepared according to methods known to those skilled in the art.

In one embodiment, a composition may be encapsulated. For instance, when the composition is to be administered orally, the dosage form is formulated so the composition is not exposed to conditions prevalent in the gastrointestinal tract before the colon, e.g., high acidity and digestive enzymes present in the stomach and/or intestine. The encapsulation of compositions for therapeutic use is routine in the art. Encapsulation may include hard-shelled capsules, which may be used for dry, powdered ingredients soft-shelled capsules. Capsules may be made from aqueous solutions of gelling agents such as animal protein (e.g., gelatin), plant polysaccharides or derivatives like carrageenans and modified forms of starch and cellulose. Other ingredients may be added to a gelling agent solution such as plasticizers (e.g., glycerin and or sorbitol), coloring agents, preservatives, disintegrants, lubricants and surface treatment.

A composition may be prepared by obtaining a fecal sample from an appropriate donor and blending with a diluent. Useful diluents include aqueous solutions that are routinely used for manipulating microbes, eukaryotic cells, and/or viruses. Useful diluents may include constituents to maintain physiological buffer, osmolarity, and the like. The diluent is preferably sterile and/or non-allergenic. An example of a diluent includes, but is not limited to, phosphate buffered saline at pH 7. In one embodiment, 1 part donor feces may be combined with 5 parts diluent (e.g., 50 grams of donor feces may be combined with 250 mls diluent) and blended. In one embodiment, the oxygen in the blending chamber may be decreased or removed by purging with an inert gas such as nitrogen or argon prior to blending. Such anaerobic conditions may be useful to maintain viability of most anaerobic bacteria present in a colon. The sample may be blended multiple times and/or more diluent may be added until a consistency is achieved that will permit the following steps to occur. In one embodiment, anaerobic conditions are not used in steps following the blending. It was found that anaerobic conditions were not necessary in the steps following the blending, and this was unexpected and surprising since a substantial percentage of prokaryotic cells in fecal material are strict anaerobes, and exposure to oxygen kills them. After the blending, the solutions used for washing and resuspension did not need to be purged of oxygen, and manipulation of the microbiota in an oxygen-free cabinet or glove box was not needed.

Not all microbes and eukaryotic cells present in an individual's colon can be cultured, thus, in one embodiment conditions for preparing a composition include the use of temperatures that decrease the replication of the microbes and eukaryotic cells. In one embodiment, the conditions used for preparation are maintained below 37° C. For instance, the conditions used for preparation are maintained at a temperature of no greater than 30° C., no greater than 20° C., no greater than 10° C., or no greater than 5° C. In one embodiment, conditions are used such that replication of the microbes and eukaryotic cells does not occur. When the conditions used to prepare a composition of the present invention include lower temperatures to minimize replication and cell death, the biological material present in a composition includes a population of microbes, eukaryotic cells, and viruses that is essentially identical to a population of microbes, eukaryotic cells, and viruses present in the colon or feces of a normal healthy human, e.g., the donor from whom the fecal sample was obtained.

Removal of non-living material may be achieved by passing the blended sample through a sieve with a sieve size of no greater than 2.0 mm, no greater than 1.0 mm, no greater than 0.5 min, no greater than 0.25 mm, no greater than 0.212 mm, no greater than 0.180 mm, no greater than 0.150 mm, no greater than 0.125 mm, no greater than 0.106 mm, no greater than 0.090 mm, no greater than 0.075 mm, no greater than 0.063 mm, no greater than 0.053 mm, no greater than 0.045 mm, no greater than 0.038 mm, no greater than 0.032 mm, no greater than 0.025 mm, no greater than 0.020 nun, no greater than 0.01 mm, or no greater than 0.2 mm. In one embodiment, the blended sample is prepared by passing it through a sieve with a sieve size of 0.25 mm and collecting the filtrate. In one embodiment, the blended sample is passed through sieves with progressively smaller sieve sizes until final passage through a sieve size of 0.25 mm. For instance, if a total of four sieves are used the sieve size of the first sieve may be 2 mm, followed by 1 mm, followed by 0.5 mm, and then followed by 0.25 mm. The final filtrate may be collected in a centrifuge tube, and centrifuged at a speed sufficient to pellet the biological material, for instance, 10,000×g for 10 minutes at 4° C. The supernatant is removed, the cells are resuspended in diluent, optionally centrifuged again, for instance at 10,000×g for 10 minutes at 4° C. The final supernatant is discarded and the cells are resuspended in an aqueous solution (e.g., diluent, cryoprotectant, and the like, or a combination thereof). In one embodiment, the volume of the blended mixture is decreased through the steps of sieving and washing. For instance, in one embodiment, the volume is decreased to 14% of the volume used in the blending (e.g., from 250 mls to 35 mls). In one embodiment, the volume of the blended mixture is decreased through the steps of sieving and washing to result in between 1×10¹⁰ and 5×10¹⁰ cells in a volume that is subsequently administered to a subject. This process results in an extract of feces that is highly enriched for all colon microbiota that are able to pass through a sieve as described above, and can be centrifuged at 10,000×g for 10 minutes. As used herein, “enriched” refers to increasing the abundance of biological material relative to non-living material, such that biological material constitutes a significantly higher proportion compared to the fecal material before the enrichment. The term “enriched” refers to those situations in which a person has intervened to elevate the proportion of biological material.

The amount of aqueous solution added may be in an amount to result in a single dosage having an appropriate number of cells. In one embodiment, a single dosage may include between 1×10¹⁰ and 5×10¹⁰ cells, for instance, 3×10¹⁰ cells. Since most biological material is difficult or impossible to culture, a hemocytometer may be used to determine the number of cells.

In one embodiment the resulting pellet may be suspended in half the original volume of diluent containing 10% glycerol. The sample may be used immediately, or may be frozen, for instance, at −80° C., for later use. When freezing, the sample may be left in a centrifuge tube, or may be in a different container. In one embodiment, the container is one that increases the surface area of the sample. For instance, the sample may be placed in an IV bag. When the frozen sample is to be used, it may be thawed on ice and then transplanted into the recipient. It was found that freezing the compositions described herein did not result in destruction of its curative potential. In one embodiment the sample resulting from centrifugation may be processed for long term storage of 1 year or longer. The ability to store such a sample provides a level of flexibility that was not possible with other methods. For instance, it was necessary to quickly identify a donor, rapidly process a fecal sample from the donor, and use it immediately. Examples of useful processing methods include, but are not limited to, freezing, freeze drying, spray drying, lyophilization, vacuum drying, air drying, or other forms of evaporative drying. Processing of a composition of the present invention may include the production of a powder following any drying procedure.

The use of sieves to extract biological material from fecal material unexpectedly resulted in a composition which was nearly odorless. This was not expected because feces normally have a distinctive odor and this was surprising to be removed by the minimal manipulation used. This is a significant advantage as it takes a method that is unaesthetic and so distasteful that some patients and staff refuse to take part, and changes it into a method that is easily practiced in a normal clinical setting or at home. As used herein, “odorless” means there is a decreased amount of volatile organic molecules present, and the decreased amount of volatile organic molecules present can be easily detected by a person comparing the material before processing with the material after processing.

The present invention is further directed to methods of using the compositions described herein. A method of the present invention includes administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of a composition described herein. The administering is under conditions suitable for deposition of the composition in a region of the large or small intestine such that the biological material in the composition colonizes the colon. For instance, administration may be into upper gastrointestinal tract, as well as lower gastrointestinal tract, e.g., the terminal ileum, cecum, colonic areas containing diverticulosis, and rectum. In one embodiment the administering may be oral, such as by tablet. In one embodiment the administering may be by intubation, such as by nasogastric tube. In one embodiment the administering may be rectal, for instance by a colonoscope, enema, or suppository. Conditions that are “suitable” for an event to occur, or “suitable” conditions are conditions that do not prevent such events from occurring. Thus, these conditions permit, enhance, facilitate, and/or are conducive to the event. As used herein, an “effective amount” relates to a sufficient amount of a composition described herein, to provide the desired effect. For instance, in one embodiment an “effective amount” is an amount effective to alleviate one or more symptoms and/or signs of the disease as described herein. In some embodiments, an effective amount is an amount that is sufficient to effect a reduction in a symptom and/or sign associated with a disease, such as diarrhea or C. difficile. A reduction in a symptom and/or a sign is, for instance, at least 10%, at least 20%, at least 30%, at least 40%, at least 50%, at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 90%, or at least 100% in a measured sign as compared to a control, a non-treated subject, or the subject prior to administration of the composition. In one embodiment, an effective amount is an amount sufficient to result in at least 1×10¹⁰, at least 3×10¹⁰, or at least 5×10¹⁰ cells delivered to the colon. It will be understood, however, that the total dosage of the compositions as disclosed herein will be decided by the attending physician within the scope of sound medical judgment. The exact amount required will vary depending on factors such as the type and extent of disease being treated.

In one embodiment, a method of the present invention includes treating certain diseases in a subject in need of treatment. The subject may be a mammal, such as a human. In some embodiments animal models may be used, such as a mammal, including a rat, a mouse, a hamster, a gerbil, or a primate. As used herein, the term “disease” refers to any deviation from or interruption of the normal structure or function of a part, organ, or system, or combination thereof, of a subject that is manifested by a characteristic symptom or clinical sign. Diseases include those characterized by dysfunctional composition of colon microbiota. Such diseases include, but are not limited to, colitis, including autoimmune colitis (e g, inflammatory bowel disease, ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, irritable bowel syndrome) and infectious colitis. Examples of infectious colitis include, but are not limited to Clostridium difficile colitis (e.g., acute C. difficile colitis, relapsing C. difficile colitis, or severe C. difficile colitis) and enterohemorrhagic colitis (e.g., a colitis caused by Shigella spp. or E. coli). Other examples of diseases include, but are not limited to, chronic diarrhea; chronic constipation, metabolic syndrome and obesity, atopic diseases including asthma, eczema, eosinophilic disorders of the GI tract, systemic autoimmunity including rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosis, multiple sclerosis, etc., chronic pain disorders such fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome, neurodegenerative disorders, eating disorders, and malnutrition.

As used herein, the term “symptom” refers to subjective evidence of disease or condition experienced by the patient and caused by disease. As used herein, the term “clinical sign,” or simply “sign,” refers to objective evidence of a disease present in a subject. Symptoms and/or signs associated with diseases referred to herein and the evaluation of such signs are routine and known in the art. Typically, whether a subject has a disease, and whether a subject is responding to treatment, may be determined by evaluation of signs associated with the disease.

Treatment of a disease can be prophylactic or, alternatively, can be initiated after the development of a disease. Treatment that is prophylactic, for instance, initiated before a subject manifests signs of a disease, is referred to herein as treatment of a subject that is “at risk” of developing a disease. An example of a subject that is at risk of developing a disease is a person having a risk factor. An example of a risk factor for Clostridium difficile colitis is antibiotic therapy of the gastrointestinal tract. Treatment can be performed before, during, or after the occurrence of the diseases described herein. Treatment initiated after the development of a disease may result in decreasing the severity of the signs of the disease, or completely removing the signs.

In one embodiment, a method of the present invention includes transplanting a microbiota from a donor to a recipient.

In one embodiment, a method of the present invention includes increasing the relative abundance of members of the phylum Firmicutes, such as a nonpathogenic member of the class Clostridia, and/or members of the phylum Bacteroidetes, in a recipient's colon. The phrase “relative abundance” refers to number of members of a phylum or class compared to the number of members of all other taxa in a recipient's colon. Such a comparison can be expressed as a percent. In one embodiment, the relative abundance of non-pathogenic members of the class Clostridia in a recipient's colon after the administration may be increased by at least 5%, at least 10%, at least 20%, or at least 50%, compared to the recipient's colon before the administration. In one embodiment, the relative abundance of members of the phylum Firmicutes in a recipient's colon after the administration may be increased by at least 5%, at least 10%, at least 20%, or at least 50% compared to the recipient's colon before the administration. The change in the abundance may be determined at, for instance, 3 days, 10 days, 15 days, or 25 days after the administration of fecal microbiota.

In one embodiment, a method of the present invention includes decreasing the relative abundance of members of the phylum Proteobacteria in a recipient's colon. In one embodiment, the relative abundance of members of the phylum Proteobacteria in a recipient's colon after the administration may be decreased by at least 10%, at least 20%, at least 30%, or at least 40% compared to the recipient's colon before the administration. The change in the abundance of members of the phylum Proteobacteria may be determined at, for instance, 3 days, 10 days, 15 days, or 25 days after the administration.

In one embodiment, the existing microbiota does not need to be cleared prior to administration of a composition of the present invention. In other embodiments clearance of the microbiota may be necessary. Methods for clearance of existing microbiota are known and routine. In one example, clearance can be accomplished by administering a cocktail of antibiotics for one week until a day prior to transplant. An example of a useful cocktail is Metronidazole (1000 mg twice daily), Rifaximin (550 mg twice daily), Vancomycin (500 mg twice daily), and Neomycin (1000 mg twice daily).

The present invention is illustrated by the following examples. It is to be understood that the particular examples, materials, amounts, and procedures are to be interpreted broadly in accordance with the scope and spirit of the invention as set forth herein.

Example 1

Clostridium difficile associated disease is a major known complication of antibiotic therapy. The pathogen is normally held in check by native colon microbiota, but this level of protection may be lost when these microbial communities are suppressed by antibiotics. Antibiotics used to treat C. difficile infection may also perpetuate its recurrence by continued suppression of normal microbiota. Thus, a significant fraction of patients suffer from recalcitrant C. difficile infection, and recalcitrant C. difficile infection is associated with significant morbidity. Fecal bacteriotherapy is an increasingly used method used to break the cycle of C. difficile infection recurrence presumably through restoration of normal intestinal microbial communities. We previously reported, in one clinical case, that bacteriotherapy of colon microbiota resulted in the replacement of a host's microbiota by that of the donor (Khoruts, et al., 2010, J. Clin. Gastroenterol., 44(5):354). In order to obtain a greater understanding of the composition and stability of microbial communities before and after bacteriotherapy, we have analyzed amplified 16S rRNA regions of fecal DNA (V5 and V6) by using a pyrosequencing technology (an Illumina HiSeq2000 or other Illumina platforms). Additional individuals are currently being processed and analyzed.

Introduction

-   -   Clostridium difficile is an emerging pathogen and the most         common cause of nosocomial diarrhea.     -   Infections are often associated with antibiotic therapy, where         the protective effect provided by the normal intestinal flora is         disrupted.     -   C. difficile infection is often controlled by additional         antimicrobial therapy, but approximately 20% of patients develop         refractory disease resulting in recurrent diarrhea.     -   Bacteriotherapy, in the form of a fecal transplantation, has         been shown to successfully treat refractory C. difficile         infection.     -   Next generation sequencing technologies have allowed for a         deeper interrogation of the intestinal microflora and was used         in our study to examine changes in microbial community structure         after transplantation.

Donor fecal material was obtained from the patient's son, who was tested for infectious disease, including C. difficile, Hepatitis A, B, or C viruses, HIV virus, Salmonella, Campylobacter, Yersinia, Shigella, E. Coli 0157:H7, Helicobacter pylori, Treponema pallidum, Giardia, and Cryptosporidium.

The patient was infused with donor fecal material by colonoscopy, which revealed severe, extensive diverticulosis in the sigmoid colon. The donor's fecal material was deposited into the cecum. Symptoms consistent with C. difficile infection were resolved within days of bacteriotherapy.

Methods

-   -   Patient fecal samples were collected at day −31 before the fecal         transplant bacteriotherapy and at days 5, 21, 46, 95, 132, 159,         188, and 227 post transplantation. A donor fecal sample was         collected the day of the procedure and deposited into the         recipient's cecum.     -   DNA was extracted from fecal materials using a MOBIO ultra-clean         fecal DNA kit (MOBIO Laboratories, Inc., Carlsbad, Calif.) as         directed by the manufacturer. Triplicate samples were extracted         and pooled.     -   The V6 hypervariable region of the bacteria 16S rRNA gene was         amplified using 50 ng of extracted DNA as template. Barcoded         primers were used for multiplex sequencing (Kysela et al., 2005,         Environmental Microbiology 7:356-64, and Claesson et al.,         Nucleic Acids Research, 2010, Vol. 38, No. 22 e200         doi:10.1093/narigkq873). Triplicate samples were prepared and         pooled.     -   Amplified samples were mixed in equimolar ratios and sequenced         at the National Center for Genomic Research (NCGR) using the         Illumina sequencing platform.     -   Sequence data was analyzed using MOTHUR and the SILVA reference         database (Scholss, 2009, Appl. Environ. Microbiol.,         75(23):7537-7541. The taxonomy of operational taxonomic units         (OTUs) were assigned at the 97% similarity using the GreenGenes         reference files. (FIGS. 1 and 2)     -   Principal component analysis was done using Yue and Clayton's         Theta calculation (Yue and Clayton, 2005, Commun. Stat. Theor.         Methods, 34:2123-2131). Accumulation curves were calculated         based on 97% OTU similarities. (FIG. 3)

Results & Discussion

-   -   Greater than 40% of the sequences obtained from the recipient's         pretransplantation sample (day −31) belonged to unclassified         Mollicutes strains or the Gammaproteobacteria.     -   In contrast, the donor's and recipient's post-transplantation         samples were dominated by Firmicutes. Unclassified members of         the Clostridiales and the Ruminococcaceae family were abundant.     -   Community analysis done using the Yue and Clayton's theta index         showed that the post-transplantation samples clustered more         closely with each other and with the donor sample, compared to         that of the recipient's pre-transplantation sample.     -   Sequence analysis indicated that the taxa present in the         recipient's pre- and post-transplant fecal samples differed         considerably, suggesting that fecal bacteriotherapy was         successful in altering the patient's intestinal microflora.     -   The transplanted microbial community in the recipient's         intestine remained fairly stable after 7.5 months post         transplantation.

Surprisingly, sequences representing the Bacteroidales were in fairly low abundance in all of the samples analyzed.

TABLE 1 Pyrosequencing Metrics Sample Day Seqs OTUs (97%) Coverage Shannon Index −31 1335704 15600 0.992 3.844 Donor 2892413 34945 0.992 4.663 +5 2631872 28948 0.992 4.004 +21 2909055 30038 0.993 4.047 +46 3604923 35864 0.993 4.277 +95 2216996 27782 0.991 4.631 +132 2927800 26510 0.994 3.746 +159 2691936 30990 0.992 4.551 +188 1649565 18417 0.993 3.781 +277 3073102 31162 0.993 3.852

Example 2

Donor Screening for Fecal Microbiota Material Preparation

The donor undergoes a complete medical history and physical examination. In addition, a full-length donor history questionnaire is completed as recommended by the FDA for blood donors, and potential donors saying yes to any of the questions are excluded (http://wwvv.fda.gov/downloads/BiologicsBloodVaccines/BloodBloodProducts/ApprovedProducts/LicensedProductsBLAs/BloodDonorScreening/UCM213552.pdf). However, as gut microbiota have been associated or postulated to be involved with multiple medical conditions, the process of selection is more rigorous than that of the blood donors and includes virtually any systemic illness.

Inclusion Criteria

1. Age >18

2. Ability to provide informed consent.

Exclusion Criteria

I. Medical History

-   -   A. Risk of infectious agent.         -   1. Known viral infection with Hepatitis B, C or HIV         -   2. Known exposure to HIV or viral hepatitis at any time         -   3. High risk behaviors including sex for drugs or money, men             who have sex with men, more than one sexual partner in the             preceding 12 months, any past use of intravenous drugs or             intranasal cocaine, history of incarceration.         -   4. Tattoo or body piercing within 12 months.         -   5. Travel to areas of the world where risk of traveler's             diarrhea is higher than the US.         -   6. Current communicable disease, e.g., upper respiratory             viral infection.     -   B. Gastrointestinal comorbidities.         -   1. History of irritable bowel syndrome. Specific symptoms             may include frequent abdominal cramps, excessive gas,             bloating, abdominal distension, fecal urgency, diarrhea,             constipation.         -   2. History of inflammatory bowel disease such as Crohn's             disease, ulcerative colitis, microscopic colitis.         -   3. Chronic diarrhea.         -   4. Chronic constipation or use of laxatives.         -   5. History of gastrointestinal malignancy or known colon             polyposis.         -   6. History of any abdominal surgery, e.g., gastric bypass,             intestinal resection, appendectomy, cholecystectomy, etc.         -   7. Use of Probiotics or any other over the counter aids used             by the potential donor for purpose of regulating digestion.             Yogurt and kefir products are allowed if taken merely as             food rather than nutritional supplements.     -   C. Factors that can or do affect the composition of the         intestinal microbiota.         -   1. Antibiotics for any indication within the preceding 6             months.         -   2. Any prescribed immunosuppressive or anti-neoplastic             medications.     -   D. Systemic Medical Conditions.         -   1. Metabolic Syndrome, established or emerging. Criteria             used for definition here are stricter than any established             criteria. These include history of increased blood pressure,             history of diabetes or glucose intolerance.         -   2. Known systemic autoimmunity, e.g., connective tissue             disease, multiple sclerosis.         -   3. Known atopic diseases including asthma or eczema.         -   4. Chronic pain syndromes including fibromyalgia, chronic             fatigue syndrome.         -   5. Ongoing (even if intermittent) use of any prescribed             medications, including inhalers or topical creams and             ointments.         -   6. Neurologic, neurodevelopmental, and neurodegenerative             disorders including autism, Parkinson's disease.

II. Exclusion Criteria on Physical Examination.

-   -   1. General. Body mass index >26 kg/m², central obesity defined         by waste:hip ratio >0.85 (male) and >0.80 (female).     -   2. Blood pressure >135 mmHg systolic and >85 mmHg diastolic.     -   3. Skin—presence of a rash, tattoos or body piercing placed         within a year, jaundice.     -   4. Enlarged lymph nodes.     -   5. Wheezing on auscultation.     -   6. Hepatomegaly or stigmata of liver disease.     -   7. Swollen or tender joints. Muscle weakness.     -   8. Abnormal neurologic examination.

III. Exclusion Criteria on Laboratory Testing.

-   -   1. Positive stool Clostridium difficile toxin B tested by PCR.     -   2. Positive stool cultures for any of the routine pathogens         including Salmonella, Shigella, Yersinia, Campylobacter, E. coli         0157:H7.     -   3. Abnormal ova and parasites examination.     -   4. Positive Giardia, Cryptosporidium, or Helicobacter pylori         antigens.     -   5. Positive screening for any viral illnesses, including HIV 1         and 2, Viral Hepatitis A IgM, Hepatitis surface antigen and core         Ab.     -   6. Abnormal RPR (screen for syphilis).     -   7. Any abnormal liver function tests including alkaline         phosphatase, aspartate aminotransaminase, alanine         aminotransferase.     -   8. Raised serum triglycerides >150 mg/dL     -   9. BDL cholesterol <40 mg/dL (males) and <50 mg/dL (females)     -   10. High sensitivity CRP >2.4 mg/L     -   11. Raised fasting plasma glucose (>100 mg/dL)

Example 3

Fecal Sample Processing

Donor fecal material is immediately chilled on ice for transport to the laboratory. Samples are processed within one hour after collection.

Fecal samples are homogenized by mixing 50 g of donor feces and 250 ml of sterile phosphate buffered saline, pH 7, (PBS) in a Waring Blender. The blending chamber is purged with nitrogen gas for several minutes to remove oxygen prior to homogenization. Samples are blended three times on the lowest setting for 20 seconds. Additional PBS or blending cycles may be added depending on the consistency of the fecal suspension. Blended samples are passed through a series of four sieves with pore sizes of 2.0 mm, 1.0 mm, 0.5 mm and 0.25 mm (W.S. Tyler Industrial Group, Mentor, Ohio). The sieves were based on US standard sieve sizes of 10, 18, 35, and 60 for 2.0 mm, 1.0 mm, 0.5 mm and 0.25 mm, respectively. The final filtrate passing through the sieves (less than 0.25 mm fraction) is collected in 50 ml conical centrifuge tubes and centrifuged at 4,000 rpm (about 4,000×g) for 10 minutes at 4° C. The supernatant is discarded and the pellet is suspended in one half the original volume of PBS (e.g. 125 ml) containing 10% glycerol. The samples are used immediately, or stored frozen at −80° C. and thawed on ice before transplantation.

Example 4

This example reports clinical experience with 43 consecutive patients that were treated for recurrent CDI C. difficile infection (CDI). During this time donor identification and screening was simplified by moving from patient-identified individual donors to standard volunteer donors. Material preparation shifted from the endoscopy suite to a standardized process in the laboratory, and ultimately to banking frozen processed fecal material that is ready to use when needed.

Standardization of material preparation significantly simplified the practical aspects of treatment without loss of apparent efficacy in clearing recurrent CDI. Approximately 30% of the patients had underlying inflammatory bowel disease, and treat went was equally effective in this group. Several key steps in standardization of donor material preparation significantly simplified the clinical practice of treatment of recurrent CDI in patients failing antibiotic therapy. This is also reported in Hamilton et al., Am. J. Gastroenterol., 2012, doi:10.1038/ajg.2011.482.

Methods

Patients

This report includes the first 43 patients who received fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) for recurrent CDI. All patients were identified by direct referral from clinicians at infectious disease and gastroenterology practices in the Minneapolis and St. Paul metropolitan area. Inclusion criteria for FMT included a history of symptomatic, toxin-positive, infection by C. difficile and at least two documented subsequent recurrences despite use of standard antibiotic therapy. At least one failed antibiotic regimen had to include a minimum of a 6 week course of tapered or pulsed vancomycin dosage, or at least a one month vancomycin course followed by a minimum two week rifaximin “chaser.” The only exclusion criteria in the protocol were age <18 and medical fragility from non-C. difficile problems resulting in life expectancy of <1 year. In the latter situation we advised patients that the best therapeutic option was an indefinite course of vancomycin. All patients gave informed consent for FMT via colonoscopy, recognizing relatively limited experience with this treatment approach and the intrinsic unknowns associated with its use. The Institutional Review Board at the University of Minnesota approved prospective collection of clinical outcome data, while recognizing this experience does not constitute a clinical trial, and as such was not designed to test the efficacy of FMT in comparison with any other therapeutic options.

Donor Identification and Screening

At the start of the program patients were asked to self-identify potential donors. These included mothers (n=2), daughters (n=1), sons (n=3), wives (n=1), husbands (n=1), and friends (n=2). Prior to recruitment, the donors were required to submit available medical records and have a separate medical history interview away from the recipient patient. The history included: assessment of infectious risk, including identification of known risk factors for HIV and Hepatitis, current communicable diseases, and recent travel to areas of the world with a higher prevalence of diarrheal illnesses. Additional absolute donor exclusion criteria included gastrointestinal co-morbidities and the use of antibiotics within preceding three months. Since gut microbiota are likely involved in various aspects of energy metabolism and the functioning of the immune system, the presence of features of metabolic syndrome, autoimmunity, or allergic diseases were treated as relative exclusion criteria. Donors provided separate informed consent to participate in the protocol, which included risks associated with laboratory screening. The donors underwent serologic testing for HIV and Hepatitis B and C, and stool testing that included screening for routine enteric pathogens, C. difficile toxin B, and examination for ova and parasites, and Giardia and Cryptosporidium antigens.

Given varying logistic difficulties in recruiting individual patient-identified donors, the lack of availability of donor materials when needed, and no evidence to suggest a clear therapeutic advantage of using a related versus unrelated donor (e.g., son or daughter versus friend or domestic partner), volunteer donors were recruited into the FMT program. The advantages of this change included removing the burden of donor identification from the patient, improving the efficiency and costs related to donor screening, a more consistent supply donor fecal microbiota, and the ability to impose extensive and stringent exclusion criteria on donor selection (Table 2). Two unpaid volunteer donors were recruited during this period, and one of them provided the majority of donated fecal material. Donor medical history was reviewed prior to every donation and complete laboratory screening, as described above, was done every 6 months.

TABLE 2 Donor exclusion criteria. Donor Exclusion Criteria History and Physical Examination Laboratory Screening Risk of Infectious 1. Known HIV or Hepatitis B, C 1. Ab for HIV 1 and 2. Agent infection. 2. Viral Hepatitis A IgM. 2. Known exposure to HIV or viral 3. Hepatitis B surface Ag and core hepatitis at any time. Ab. 3. High risk behaviors including sex 4. HCV Ab. for drugs or money, men who have 5. RPR. sex with men, more than one sexual 6. Stool cultures for enteric pathoges partner in the preceding 12 including Salmonella, Shigella, months, history of incarceration, any Yersinia, Campylobacter, E. Colt past use of intravenous drugs or 0157:H7. intranasal cocaine. 7. Ova and parasites examination. 4. Tattoo or body piercing within 12 8. Positive stool Giardia, months. Cryptosporidium and Helicobacter 5. Travel to areas of the world with pylori antigens. increased risk of traveler's diarrhea. 9. Clostridium difficile toxin B PCR. 6. Current communicable disease, 10. Liver function tests including e.g., upper respiratory tract viral alkaline phosphatase, AST, ALT. infection. Gastrointestinal 1. History of irritable bowel comorbidities syndrome, or any of the associated symptoms, including frequent abdominal cramps, excessive gas, bloating, abdominal distension, fecal urgency, diarrhea or constipation. 2. History of inflammatory bowel disease such as Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, lymphocytic colitis. 3. Chronic diarrhea. 4. Chronic constipation or use of laxatives. 5. History of gastrointestinal malignancy or known colon polyposis. 6. History of any abdominal surgery, e.g., gastric bypass, intestinal resection, appendectomy, cholecystectomy, etc. 7. Use of probiotics or any other over the counter aids for specific purposes of regulating digestion. Systemic Medical 1. Established metabolic syndrome or 1. Serum triglycerides (>150 Conditions any early features suggestive of its mg/dL). emergence. Body mass index >26 2. HDL cholesterol <40 mg/dL kg/m2, waste:hip ratio >0.85 (male) (males) and <50 mg/dL (females). and >0.8 (female); BP >135 mmHg 3. High sensitivity CRP >2.4 systolic and >85 mmHg diastolic. mg/L. 2. Known systemic autoimmunity, 4. Fasting plasma glucose >100 e.g., connective tissue disease, mg/dL. multiple sclerosis, etc. 5. Liver function tests, including 3. Known atopic diseases including alkaline phosphatase, AST, ALT. asthma or eczema. 6. FANA. 4. Chronic pain syndromes including fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome 5. Ongoing (even if intermittent) use of any prescribed medications, including inhalers or topical creams and ointments. 6. Neurologic, neurodevelopmental, and neurodegenerative disorders including autism, Parkinson's disease, etc. 7. Presence of a skin rash, wheezing on auscultation, lymphadenopathy, hepatomegaly or any stigmata of liver disease, swollen or tender joints, muscle weakness, abnormal neurological examination. Additional factors 1. Antibiotics for any indication within known to affect the the preceding 6 months. composition of intestinal microbiota

Donor Material Preparation

Individual patient-identified donors used in the early phase of the program came into the outpatient endoscopy center 1-2 h prior to the scheduled procedure.

The fecal material was collected in a toilet hat and processed in a dedicated bathroom separate from the procedure room. Approximately 50 gm of fecal material was placed into a standard commercial blender (Oster, Sunbeam Corp, Rye, N.Y.) and homogenized in 250 mL of sterile, nonbacteriostatic nominal saline. The slurry was then passed through stainless steel tea strainers to remove larger particles that could interfere with loading the syringes.

The material obtained from volunteer “universal” donors was transported on ice into the laboratory, where it was processed within two hours of collection. The material was weighed and homogenized in a commercial blender in a dedicated biological cabinet. The slurry was then passed through 2.0 mm, 1.0 mm, 0.5 mm, and 0.25 mm stainless steel laboratory sieves (W. S. Tyler, Inc., Mentor, Ohio) to remove undigested food and smaller particulate material. The resulting material passing through the 0.25 mm sieve was centrifuged at 6,000×g for 15 min in a Sorvall SS-34 rotor and resuspended to one half the original volume in nonbacteriostatic natural saline. The resulting concentrated fecal bacteria suspension was administered to the patient immediately or amended with sterile pharmaceutical grade glycerol (Sigma, St. Louis, Mo.) to a final concentration of 10%, and stored frozen at −80° C. for one to eight weeks until used. Thawing was done over 2-4 hours in an ice bath prior to the FMT procedure. The frozen preparation was diluted to 250 ml with nonbacteriostatic normal saline prior to infusion in the donor. This fecal material extract, whether fresh or frozen, was nearly odorless and of reduced viscosity, color, and texture relative to earlier material prepared in the endoscopy center. Filtration of donor material allowed for effortless loading of large tip 60 mL syringes without risk of clogging. All containers, bottles, and sieves used in material preparation were sterilized prior to use. Fecal material from universal donors was treated in the same manner as that obtained from patient-identified donors.

Transplantation Procedure

Patients were maintained on full dose of vancomycin (125 mg, 4 times daily, by mouth) until two days prior to the FMT procedure. The day before the procedure the patients were prepped using a split dosage polyethylene glycol purge (GoLYTELY or MoviPrep), which is standard in our endoscopy unit, prior to colonoscopies to wash out residual antibiotic and fecal material. The patients underwent a full colonoscopy under conscious sedation. Mucosal biopsies were taken to rule out lymphocytic colitis in absence of obvious inflammatory bowel disease. The majority of the prepared donor material (220-240 mL) was administered via the colonoscope's biopsy channel into the patient's terminal ileum and cecum. In some cases, however, a small portion (50 mL) was also instilled into colonic areas containing maximal diverticulosis. Recovery procedure was identical to that routinely used for standard colonoscopy patients. All patients were instructed to contact the endoscopist in case of symptom recurrence, were formally followed in clinic 1-2 months after the procedure. Clearance of CDI was defined by resolution of diarrhea and negative stool testing for C. difficile at 2 months following FMT. All patients in this protocol also participated in a study examining fecal bacterial community structure, which involved collection of fecal specimens on days 3, 7, 14 and 1, 3, 6, and 12 months after the procedure. The research staff collected these specimens from the patient's places of residence, providing additional opportunities for symptom follow-up.

Statistical Analysis

Non-categorical data were compared using unpaired Student's t-test. Categorical data were compared using Fisher's exact test. GraphPad Prism software was used to calculate two-tailed and two-sided p-values that were calculated with each test, respectively.

Results

Demographics

The group of patients with recurrent CDI described in this report clearly had refractory disease as evidenced by the average number of sequential relapses and duration of the condition (Table 3). Furthermore, many patients had multiple risk factors for high probability of recurrence, such as history of severe CDI as evidenced by hospitalization, frequent use of non-C. difficile intercurrent antibiotics, and advanced age (Hu et al. Gastroenterology 2009; 136:1206-14). All patients failed a long taper or pulsed regimen of vancomycin, and 40% of patients also failed an additional long course of vancomycin followed by a two-week rifaximin “chaser” regimen. One of these patients also failed a 4-week course of rifaximin. Several patients (3/43) took 2-4 week course of nita7oxanide, which also failed to clear the infection. Patients with inflammatory bowel disease were not excluded from the protocol. Thirty five percent of our patients (14 of 40) had underlying IBD, including Crohn's disease (6/14), ulcerative colitis (4/14), and lymphocytic colitis (4/14). The patients with IBD were generally younger (Table 4), but did not differ in the refractory nature of CDI or severity of presentation than older patients. However, the majority of patients without underlying 1BD had moderate to severe diverticulosis.

TABLE 3 Demographics of patient population. The first 10 cases were done using patient-identified individual donors. After that, the protocol shifted to use of a standard donor. Fresh material was used in the earlier cases, and later practice shifted to use of frozen material. Number Duration of Age (months) Relapses History of Interim Donor (Mean ± Female of RCDI (Mean ± Hospitalization Anti- Success Material SD) Gender (Mean ± SD) SD) for CDI biotics PPI CRI IBD Diverticulosis Rate Individual 61 ± 22 70% 12.7 ± 7.3  6.2 ± 3.0 70% 60% 60% 30% 30% 50%  7/10 Donor (70%) (n = 10) Standard 55 ± 22 83% 13.1 ± 9.8  6.4 ± 3.3 75% 42% 33% 25% 50% 50% 11/12 Donor, (92%) Fresh Material (n = 12) Standard 59 ± 21 67% 10.1 ± 10.0 5.2 ± 3.0 38% 43% 43% 14% 24% 48% 19/21 Donor, (90%) Frozen Material (n = 12) Total 59 ± 21 72% 12.2 ± 10.3 5.9 ± 3.3 56% 48% 47% 21% 33% 49% 37/43 Experience (86%) RCDI = Recurrent C. difficile Infection PPI = Proton Pump Inhibitor medication CRI = Chronic Renal Insufficiency or Failure IBD = Inflammatory Bowel Disease

TABLE 4 Comparison of patients without and with underlying IBD. Definition of IBD includes patients with Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, and incidentally discovered lymphocytic colitis. Non-IBD IBD (n = 29) (n = 14) p Value Age (Mean ± SEM) 64.7 ± 3.3 44.6 ± 5.8  p = 0.0021 Female 69% 79% p = 0.43 (NS) Duration of RCDI (Mean # of 13.5 ± 2.1 8.3 ± 3.3 0 = 0.09 months ± SD) (NS) Number of Relapses ± SD  6.2 ± 3.0 4.4 ± 1.3 p = 0.04 Rate of Hospitalization 55% 57% P = 1.00 (NS) Interim Antibiotics 51% 36% p = 0.35 (NS) PPI 48% 43% p = 1.00 (NS) Renal Insufficiency 32% 14% p = 0.69 NS) Diverticulosis 69% 14% p = 0.0028

Response to Treatment

The overall rate of infection clearance was 86% in response to a single infusion of donor fecal material, as evidenced by symptom resolution and negative PCR testing for C. difficile toxin B after two months of follow-up (Table 3). Negative testing for C. difficile toxin B for two months was accepted as therapeutic success in patients with underlying IBD, even in absence of complete symptom resolution. Three of ten patients (30%) who received FMT using material from patient-identified individual donors had a recurrence of CDI. Two standard donors were employed for the remaining 33 cases in this series, but the majority (30/33) were done using material prepared from a single donor. Three of 33 patients who received FMT from a standard donor (fresh or frozen) had a recurrence of CDI. The difference in donor source, patient-identified versus standard, was not significant (p=0.1270). There was no significant difference in clearing the infection with fresh (11/12) or frozen (19/21) donor material. All 6 patients who experienced recurrence of CDI after FMT were offered a repeat procedure. Two of these patients, both >80 years of age, had multiple other active medical problems and preferred to remain on indefinite treatment with vancomycin. Four other patients were treated with a second infusion, and all cleared the infection bringing the overall success rate to 95% (41 of 43 patients). All second infusions were performed using the standard donor derived material. One of the recurrences of CDI occurred in a patient who received his first infusion from the second standard donor. The same donor source was used for his second FMT. Three of the four patients who received a second FMT had underlying IRD; two patients had Crohn's disease and one had lymphocytic colitis. Finally, the fourth patient had a partial colon resection done for a stricture that developed following her initial CDI episode. She has a colostomy draining her proximal colon and a long segment of residual distal colon. After recurrence of CDI within three weeks following her first FMT we thought it was likely that engraftment in this case was complicated by difficulty in retaining the donor material due to high flow of fecal contents and relatively small size of the infected colon. The second infusion in this case was done with two doses of frozen standard donor material: one via the colostomy into the colon and the other into the jejunum using upper push enteroscopy. C. difficile testing of her fecal material was done weekly in the first month and monthly thereafter. No C. difficile was found over three months of follow-up.

No serious adverse events were noted following FMT in any of the patients, with ether fresh or frozen materials. A minority of patients (approximately a third) noted some irregularity of bowel movements and excessive flatulence during the first couple weeks following the procedure, but these symptoms resolved by the time they were seen in clinic follow-up. Enhanced colitis activity in patients with underlying IBD was not observed and there was improvement in overall colitis activity in all patients with UC, although that is easily attributable to clearing the CDI. Interestingly, all diagnoses of lymphocytic colitis were made for the first time from biopsies taken during the colonoscopies performed at the time of FMT. These patients completely normalized their bowel function and had no diarrhea after FMT without any additional medical therapy for lymphocytic colitis. Follow-up biopsies were not performed in these patients when they became asymptomatic.

Discussion

Recurrent infection is one of the most difficult clinical challenges in the spectrum of C. difficile induced diarrheal disease. The risk of recurrence increases up to 65% after two or more episodes (McDonald et al. Emerg Infect Dis 2006; 12:409-15), and this risk is nearly certain in older patients who suffered severe CDI and suffered additional disruption of gut microbiota from intercurrent administration of non-C. difficile suppressing antibiotics (Hu et al. Gastroenterology 2009; 136:1206-14). The inclusion criteria for patients in this case series were simple: at least three recurrences and failure of standard antibiotic treatments. Our patients averaged about six recurrences over an average course of one year. This population highlights known risk factors for recurrence of CDI other than documented recurrence. The majority had history of at least one hospitalization for severe CDI and almost half took antibiotics after developing CDI for another non-C. difficile indication. Patients with inflammatory bowel disease dominated the younger age group. Virtually all patients were taking probiotics at presentation and many have also tried toxin-binding resins. We did not systematically collect information on all the various probiotics preparations taken by our patients, and many have tried multiple types through the course of their recurrent infections. The most common preparations contained Saccharomyces boulardii and strains of Lactobacilli. All patients were recommended to discontinue taking probiotics after FMT. In summary, by all available indicators the patients in this case series had recalcitrant CDI that would not have had a significant response rate to a placebo, and were unlikely to respond to another course of antibiotics or other available therapeutic options.

FMT has been used for decades as a last ditch method to cure recurrent CDI, and there has been growing uncontrolled evidence supporting its efficacy. Here we report one of the largest single case series. The 95% overall success rate in this series is comparable to the cumulative experience in the literature (Bakken. Anaerobe 2009; 15:285-9, van Nood et al. Euro Surveill 2009; 14, Khoruts and Sadowsky. Mucosal Immunol 2011; 4:4-7), and adds to the impetus for developing this therapeutic approach to make it more widely available. The major issues tackled by our center were those of practicality. In the early phase of the program we asked the patients to bring in prospective donors, which is the most common approach in practice at this time. Our experience does not contradict the efficacy of this approach. However, donor identification and work-up increased expense of the procedure and introduced a potential delay period. Moreover, some patients who were already exhausted by the illness had difficulty in finding suitable donors. While the ideal state of donor health may not be essential for elderly recipients with limited life expectancy, we felt compromise was not an option for younger patients on any of the donor exclusion criteria. Gut microbiota constitute a human microbial organ with major functions in energy metabolism and function of the immune system (Khoruts and Sadowsky. Mucosal Immunol 2011; 4:4-7). Therefore, this transplant procedure has potential implications for systemic physiology of the recipient. While donor health is not a guarantee to optimal composition of gut microbiota, it is currently the only available indicator. For all these reasons we decided to introduce the standard donor option to our patients. Interestingly, although many patients came into clinic with some potential donor already identified, they all immediately preferred the standard option of an anonymous screened donor upon learning about it.

The next challenge became advance preparation of the donor material. Little is known about viability of different constituents of fecal microbiota over time, and we did not wish to test this variable. However, since production of fresh material on demand is not always practical, and does create delay and issues of sanitation and aesthetics, we introduced frozen donor material as another treatment option. The clinical efficacy of frozen preparation became quickly evident and it has now become part of the standard protocol in our program.

FMT is typically considered a last choice, desperate therapy option by most clinicians, and to a great extent that is due to multiple aesthetic and practical barriers that stand in the way of its administration. Increased prevalence, morbidity, and mortality of CDI has now reached epidemic proportions and a significant fraction of these patients cannot clear the infection with standard therapies. These patients may benefit from FMT, but it is likely that the procedure is not available to them. Our FMT protocol has now progressed to the point where most obvious aesthetic and practical challenges have been overcome. This also significantly reduces costs associated with screening of potential donors. While effort and organization is required for recruitment and screening of suitable donors, as well as material preparation and banking, execution of actual FMT has become a simple matter of loading the syringes with thawed, nearly odorless, material and a colonoscopy.

There are a number of limitations to this study. It was not a rigorous clinical trial designed to test efficacy of a particular FMT methodology versus another, or some other form of therapy. Instead, it was an attempt to standardize FMT, as the procedure protocol evolved in the course of our clinical experience. Additional work is needed to ready this procedure for clinical trials and wider application. Nevertheless, our clinical outcomes provide very convincing evidence for efficacy of the frozen preparations. However, we cannot conclude from this experience alone that the fresh and frozen preparations are equivalent. The complexity of the donor material preparations, technical inability to culture most of the contained microbial constituents by classic laboratory techniques, and our ignorance as to the identity of species that are therapeutically most important precluded simple tests of donor material prior to FMT that could predict its efficacy. However, we are currently working to characterize the microbial composition of donor material and recipients' fecal samples collected over time by high throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Results of these experiments should provide some means to compare different donor preparations. In addition, we are working to develop practical laboratory tests that will allow for further standardization of microbial composition of donor preparations.

While application of FMT for recurrent CDI has a long history, case reports suggest that it may also have a place in treatment of IBD and IBS (Bennet et al. Lancet 1989; 1:164, Borody et al. J Clin Gastroenterol 2003; 37:42-7, Andrews and Borody. Med J Aust 1993; 159:633-4). Given the potentially important role of gut microbiota in pathogenesis of the metabolic syndrome, FMT is already being explored in a clinical trial for this condition (Vrieze et al. Diabetologia 2010; 53:606-13). Simplification and standardization of FMT-based therapeutics is critical for its future development. Recent technological advances have also made it possible to gain insight into composition of gut microbiota and their activity. The study of microbiota in the context of FMT should accelerate development of microbial therapeutics and yield new insights into microbial host interactions.

The complete disclosure of all patents, patent applications, and publications, and electronically available material (including, for instance, nucleotide sequence submissions in, e.g., GenBank and RefSeq, and amino acid sequence submissions in, e.g., SwissProt, PIR, PRF, PDB, and translations from annotated coding regions in GenBank and RefSeq) cited herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety. Supplementary materials referenced in publications (such as supplementary tables, supplementary figures, supplementary materials and methods, and/or supplementary experimental data) are likewise incorporated by reference in their entirety. In the event that any inconsistency exists between the disclosure of the present application and the disclosure(s) of any document incorporated herein by reference, the disclosure of the present application shall govern. The foregoing detailed description and examples have been given for clarity of understanding only. No unnecessary limitations are to be understood therefrom. The invention is not limited to the exact details shown and described, for variations obvious to one skilled in the art will be included within the invention defined by the claims.

Unless otherwise indicated, all numbers expressing quantities of components, molecular weights, and so forth used in the specification and claims are to be understood as being modified in all instances by the term “about.” Accordingly, unless otherwise indicated to the contrary, the numerical parameters set forth in the specification and claims are approximations that may vary depending upon the desired properties sought to be obtained by the present invention. At the very least, and not as an attempt to limit the doctrine of equivalents to the scope of the claims, each numerical parameter should at least be construed in light of the number of reported significant digits and by applying ordinary rounding techniques.

Notwithstanding that the numerical ranges and parameters setting forth the broad scope of the invention are approximations, the numerical values set forth in the specific examples are reported as precisely as possible. All numerical values, however, inherently contain a range necessarily resulting from the standard deviation found in their respective testing measurements.

All headings are for the convenience of the reader and should not be used to limit the meaning of the text that follows the heading, unless so specified. 

1-42. (canceled)
 43. A method of increasing the relative abundance of one or more members of the phylum Firmicutes in a patient in need thereof, the method comprising: administering to said patient an effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition comprising a human fecal microbe preparation.
 44. The method of claim 43, wherein said method also increases the fecal microbiota diversity in said patient.
 45. The method of claim 43, wherein the relative abundance of said one or more members of the phylum Firmicutes is increased by at least 20% compared to said patient's colon before said administering.
 46. The method of claim 43, wherein the relative abundance of total members of the phylum Firmicutes is increased by at least 20% compared to said patient's colon before said administering.
 47. The method of claim 43, wherein the relative abundance is determined at a time selected from the group consisting of 3 days after said administering, 10 days after said administering, 15 days after said administering, and 25 days after said administering.
 48. The method of claim 43, wherein said one or more members of the phylum Firmicutes are one or more non-pathogenic members of the class Clostridia.
 49. The method of claim 48, wherein the relative abundance of said one or more non-pathogenic members of the class Clostridia is increased by at least 20% compared to said patient's colon before said administering.
 50. The method of claim 43, wherein said administering is orally administering or rectally administering.
 51. The method of claim 43, further comprising pretreating said patient with one or more antibiotics prior to said administering.
 52. The method of claim 51, wherein said one or more antibiotics are selected from the group consisting of Metroidazole, Rifaximin, Vancomycin, and Neomycin.
 53. The method of claim 43, wherein said human fecal preparation is derived from a human fecal donor unrelated to said patient.
 54. The method of claim 43, wherein said human fecal preparation comprises an extract of feces from a human fecal donor.
 55. The method of claim 43, wherein said human fecal preparation consists essentially of particles capable of passing through a 0.5 mm sieve and a human fecal donor's intestinal microbiota.
 56. The method of claim 43, wherein said pharmaceutical composition does not comprise an extract of feces from a human fecal donor.
 57. The method of claim 43, wherein said pharmaceutical composition is frozen or lyophilized.
 58. The method of claim 43, wherein said human fecal preparation comprises at least 5×10¹⁰ cells.
 59. The method of claim 43, wherein said patient has a Clostridium difficile infection.
 60. The method of claim 43, wherein said patient has a recurrent Clostridium difficile infection.
 61. The method of claim 43, wherein said patient is at risk of developing a recurrent Clostridium difficile infection.
 62. The method of claim 43, wherein said patient has an inflammatory bowel disease. 